Chemical Weapons
John Singer Sargent, "Gassed"
Strictly speaking, a chemical weapon
relies on the physiological effects of a chemical, so agents used to
produce smoke or flame, as herbicides, or for riot control, are not
considered to be chemical weapons. Although certain chemical weapons can
be used to kill large numbers of people, as weapons of mass destruction,
other weapons are designed to injure or terrorise people. In addition to
having potentially horrific effects, chemical weapons are of great
concern because they are cheaper and easier to manufacture and deliver
than nuclear or biological weapons. Although there are many thousands of
chemical compounds that could theoretically be used as chemical warfare
agents, the actual number that have been weaponised is relatively small,
perhaps a few tens in number.
The means available to adversaries for delivery of chemical weapons
range from specially designed, sophisticated weapon systems developed by
nations to relatively inefficient improvised devices employed by
terrorists and other disaffected individuals and groups. Any nation with
the political will and a minimal industrial capability could produce
chemical agents suitable for use in warfare. Efficient weaponisation of
these agents, however, does require design and production skills usually
found in countries that possess a munitions development and production
infrastructure or access to such skills from cooperative sources. On the
other hand, almost any nation or group could fabricate crude agent
dispersal devices. While such methods may result in a small number of
affected persons, the psychological affect could be extremely
significant.
Chemical agents have effects that can be immediate or delayed, can be
persistent or non-persistent, and can have significant physiological
effects. While relatively large quantities of an agent are required to
ensure an area remains contaminated over time, small-scale selective use
that exploits surprise can cause significant disruption and may have
lethal effects.
A chemical weapon relies on the physiological effects of a chemical, so
agents used to produce smoke or flame, as herbicides, or for riot
control, are not considered to be chemical weapons. Although certain
chemical weapons can be used to kill large numbers of people, as weapons
of mass destruction, other weapons are designed to injure or terrorise
people. In addition to having potentially horrific effects, chemical
weapons are of great concern because they are cheaper and easier to
manufacture and deliver than nuclear or biological weapons. Although
there are many thousands of chemical compounds that could theoretically
be used as chemical warfare agents, the actual number that have been
weaponised is relatively small, perhaps a few tens in number.
History
There is a considerable amount of
evidence that chemical weapons usage goes back well into history.
Menes, the first
pharaoh, certainly had a serious interest in toxicology in about 3,000
BCE. The Egyptians used
hydrocyanic acid. Sulfur
dioxide, from burning sulfur was used by the Greeks. Later both sulfur
dioxide and arsenic
were proposed as weapons by Leonardo
da Vinci.
The use of
poisons fell out of favor in the 18th and 19th century. In 1862 New York
schoolteacher John W. Doughty wrote to the US Secretary of War
suggesting methods of poison gas. This was dismissed and subsequently
followed by a War Department General Order signed by President Abraham
Lincoln stating that the use of poison should be "wholly excluded
from modern warfare".
WWI
At the beginning of World War I, the
use of chemical weapons was still very much taboo. Not only did mankind
have a universal aversion to the use of poison but there was also the 1899
Hague Convention. The modern use of chemical weapons began
when both sides to the conflict used poison gas to inflict agonising
suffering and to cause significant battlefield casualties. The first
agent was ethyl
bromoacetate, a lachrymatory non-lethal agent.Such weapons
basically consisted of well known commercial chemicals put into standard
munitions such as grenades and artillery shells. Chlorine,
phosgene
(a choking agent) and mustard
gas (which inflicts painful burns on the skin and causes
significant damage to the respiratory system) were among the first
chemicals used. Chlorine was the first lethal chemical used, at
the 2nd Battle of Ypres. The results were indiscriminate and often
devastating. Nearly 100,000 immediate deaths resulted and many more
suffered long-term damage leading to death from conditions such as
emphysema, some casualties survived for many years but suffered
continuous respiratory ill health. Since World War I, chemical weapons
have caused more than one million casualties globally.
Inter-war years
As a result of public outrage, the Geneva Protocol,
which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare, was signed in
1925. While a welcome step, the Protocol had a number of significant
shortcomings, including the fact that it did not prohibit the
development, production or stockpiling of chemical weapons. Also
problematic was the fact that many states that ratified the Protocol
reserved the right to use prohibited weapons against states that were
not party to the Protocol or as retaliation in kind if chemical weapons
were used against them.
The chemicals employed before World War II can be styled as the
"classic" chemical weapons. They are relatively simple substances, most
of which were either common industrial chemicals or their derivatives.
The classic chemical agents would be only marginally useful in modern
warfare and generally only against an unsophisticated opponent, although
they could be used in terrorist attacks, and have been used in Syria in
modern times. Large quantities would be required to produce militarily
significant effects, thus complicating logistics. In the case of
terrorist attacks, relatively small amounts of an agent could cause
significant casualties and disruption if used in some situations, for
example in enclosed spaces such as shopping centres, concert halls or
underground railway systems.
World War II
Chemical weapons were not used
during WWII. Some claim of the use of Zyklon
B, a commercial pesticide that released hydrogen cyanide gas, in
the Nazi extermination camps was an example of chemical warfare. Zyklon
B had been developed by chemists Walter Heerdt, Bruno Tesch, and Gerhard
Peters at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and
Electrochemistry in Dahlem and produced by Zyklon B gas was not a
chemical weapon; it is not, and has never been, subject to any
international disarmament bans. After World War I and during World War
II, it was the most commonly used pesticide in the world. It was first
used on September 3, 1941 in the Auschwitz death camp, by the
initiative of the camp’s first deputy commandant Karl Fritzsch. The
first victims were Soviet prisoners of war who had been taken to
Auschwitz, and 250 sick Poles.
Although both the axis and allied powers experimented with CW agents
during WWII, they were not used, the reasons may be that they were
following the proscription on their use under the Geneva Protocol, or
that all civilians and troops were equipped with respirators and other
protective measures.
Gerhard Schrader, a 33-year-old German chemist at the IG
Farben chemical company, created what he called Preparation 9/91,
in 1936. Its intended use was as a pesticide, but it proved too
effective and killed a wide range of organisms, including man. It was
handed over to the military scientists of the Third Reich at Spandau
Citadel, they were so impressed with its toxicity that they renamed the
compound Tabun, the first nerve agent. He was
paid 50,000 Marks (about $450,000 or £360,000 in 2022). Only two years
later he developed another agent, Sarin. A
third agent, Soman, was developed during the
war. By the end of the war in excess of 50,000 tons of nerve agents had
been produced, and many thousands of shells had been filled.
Cold War
During the Cold War, many nations
researched chemical agents, possibly as many as twenty-five in all.
Major research was certainly carried out in the USA, USSR and the UK,
and chemical agents were weaponised and stockpiled by them.
United Kingdom
Work in the UK was centred on the Chemical Defence
Experimental Establishment (CDEE), Porton. Ranajit Ghosh, a
chemist at ICI, was investigating a class of organophosphate
compounds for use as a pesticide. In 1954, ICI put one of them on
the market under the trade name Amiton.
It was subsequently withdrawn, as it was too toxic for safe use. The
toxicity did not go unnoticed, and samples of it were sent to Porton
Down for evaluation. After the evaluation was complete, several members
of this class of compounds were developed into a new group of much more
lethal nerve agents, the V agents. The best-known of these is probably VX, assigned the UK
Rainbow Code Purple Possum, with the Russian V-Agent
coming a close second (Amiton is largely forgotten as VG).
Other members of the V series are VE, VG, VM and
VR.
On the defensive side, there were years of work to develop the means of
prophylaxis, therapy, rapid detection and identification,
decontamination and more effective protection of the body against nerve
agents, capable of exerting effects through the skin, the eyes and
respiratory tract.
Tests were carried out on servicemen to determine the effects of nerve
agents on human subjects, with one recorded death due to a nerve gas
experiment, that of 20 year old RAF
airman Ronald Maddison . It was 51 years before an inquest found
that he had died from sarin poisoning
In the 1950s the Chemical Defence Experimental Establishment became
involved with the development of CS,
a riot control agent, and took an increasing role in trauma and wound
ballistics work. Both these facets of Porton Down's work had become more
important because of the situation in Northern Ireland.
In the early 1950s, nerve agents such as sarin were produced, about 20
tons were made from 1954 until 1956 at CDE
Nancekuke, in Cornwall. Nancekuke was an important factory
for producing and stockpiling chemical weapons. Small amounts of VX were
produced there, mainly for laboratory test purposes, but also to
validate plant designs and optimise chemical processes for potential
mass production. In the late 1950s, the chemical weapons
production plant at Nancekuke was mothballed, but was maintained through
the 1960s and 1970s in a state whereby production of chemical weapons
could easily re-commence if required. The site closed in 1978, and
reverted to being RAF Portreath, a radar station. It is now Remote Radar
Head Portreath or RRH Portreath an air defence radar station operated by
the Royal Air Force, and is part of Programme
HYDRA.
United States
In 1958 the British government traded
their VX technology with the United States in exchange for information
on thermonuclear weapons and by 1961 the U.S. was producing large
amounts of VX and performing its own nerve agent research. This research
produced at least three more agents; the four agents (VE,
VG, VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve
agents.
Between 1951 and 1969, Dugway
Proving Ground was the site of testing for various chemical and
biological agents, including an open-air aerodynamic dissemination test
in 1968 that accidentally killed, on neighboring farms, approximately
6,400 sheep by an unspecified nerve agent.
From 1962 to 1973, the Department of
Defense planned 134 tests that was described as a chemical and
biological weapons "vulnerability-testing program", it was claimed at
the time that harmless simulants were used, but in n 2002, the Pentagon
admitted that some of tests used real chemical and biological weapons.
In October 2002, the Senate Armed Forces Subcommittee on Personnel held
hearings as the controversial news broke that chemical agents had been
tested on thousands of American military personnel. The hearings were
chaired by Senator Max Cleland, former VA administrator and Vietnam War
veteran.
Soviet Union
Due to the secrecy of the Soviet
Union's government, very little information was available about the
direction and progress of the Soviet chemical weapons until relatively
recently. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Russian chemist Vil
Mirzayanov published articles revealing illegal chemical weapons
experimentation in Russia.
In 1993, Mirzayanov was imprisoned and fired from his job at the State
Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology, where he
had worked for 26 years. In March 1994, after a major campaign by U.S.
scientists on his behalf, Mirzayanov was released. Among the information
related by Vil Mirzayanov was the direction of Soviet research into the
development of even more toxic nerve agents, which saw most of its
success during the mid-1980s. Several highly toxic agents were developed
during this period; the only unclassified information regarding these
agents is that they are known in the open literature only as "Foliant"
agents (named after the program under which they were developed) and by
various code designations, such as A-230 and A-232.
According to Mirzayanov, the Soviets also developed binary weapons, in
which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to produce
the agent just prior to its use. Because the precursors are generally
significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves, this technique
makes handling and transporting the munitions a great deal simpler.
Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much easier to
stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique also made it
possible to increase the shelf life of the agents a great deal. During
the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet agents were
developed and designated "Novichok" agents (after the Russian word for
"newcomer").
Types of Agents
Chemical warfare agents can be
classified in a variety of ways, based upon their properties, none of
the schemes is totally satisfactory as some agents have effects which
which fall into more than one group. The following is based upon the
most generally held view.
Choking
agents (aka Pulmonary agents as they irritate the lungs)
Choking agents were employed first by
the German army and later by the Allied forces in World War I. The first
massive use of chemical weapons in that conflict came when the Germans
released chlorine gas from thousands of cylinders along a 6-km (4-mile)
front at Ypres, Belgium, on April 22, 1915, creating a wind-borne
chemical cloud that opened a major breach in the lines of the unprepared
French and Algerian units. Eventually both sides mastered the new
techniques of using choking agents such as chlorine, phosgene,
diphosgene, chloropicrin, ethyldichlorarsine and perfluoroisobutylene,
and launched numerous attacks though without any militarily significant
breakthroughs once each side had introduced the first crude gas masks
and other protective measures.
Choking agents are delivered as gas clouds to the target area, where
individuals become casualties through inhalation of the vapour. The
toxic agent causes inflammation of the lungs and this causes
fluids to build up in the lungs, which can cause death through
asphyxiation. The effects may take up to three hours to be apparent. The
long-term effects may last for many years.
Choking agents are not generally likely to be used in conventional
warfare, but due to their ease of manufacture some have been used in
recent years by countries that are not regarded as technologically
advanced, and could also be used by terrorists.
Sternutators cause vomiting,
respiratory irritation and sneezing, their purpose is to
incapacitate rather than to kill the enemy.
Lachrymators cause irritation to the
eyes, and hence tears. They are commonly called tear gas. Lachrymators
are regarded now as riot control agents. Generally they cease to have
any effect shortly after exposure ceases, although very high levels of
exposure to some of the agents may cause long-term effects. The use of
riot control agents as a method of warfare is prohibited by the CWC.
Blister agents or vesicants are an
exception to the limited utility of classic agents. Although these
materials have a relatively low lethality, they are effective casualty
agents that inflict painful burns and blisters requiring medical
attention even at low doses. The classic mustard gas is the most popular
amongst those nations nations newly developing chemical warfare
capability since it is relatively easy to make. Mustard is generally
referred to as the "king" of agents because of its ease of production,
low cost, predictable properties, persistence, and ability to cause
resource-devouring casualties rather than fatalities. Delivered in
liquid or vapour form, such weapons burned the skin, eyes, and
respiratory tracts. The physical results, depending on level of
exposure, might be immediate or might appear after several hours.
Although lethal in high concentrations, blister agents seldom kill. At
incapacitating levels this may be as long as 12 hours. Contrary to the
normal expectation, horrible fatalities occurred in the Iran-Iraq War
because Iranian soldiers, feeling no initial effects, continued to wear
mustard soaked clothing and inhale its fumes. Untreated mustard
casualties are likely to suffer acute respiratory reactions, and to
contract serious infections from burns that have been treated too late.
Blood agents, such as hydrogen cyanide
or cyanogen chloride, are designed to be delivered in the form of a
vapour or as a gas. When inhaled, these agents prevent the transfer of
oxygen to the cells, causing the body to asphyxiate. Such chemicals
block the enzyme that is necessary for aerobic metabolism, thereby
denying oxygen to the red blood cells, which has an immediate effect
similar to that of carbon monoxide. Cyanogen chloride inhibits the
proper utilisation of oxygen within the blood cells.
Nerve agents interfere with nerve
impulse transmission. They are a class of phosphorus containing organic
chemicals (organophosphates) that disrupt the mechanism by which nerves
transfer messages to organs. The disruption is caused by blocking
acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that normally destroys acetylcholine, a
neurotransmitter. They are related to DDT. They are the most toxic of CW
agents.
Nerve agents are now divided into three series:
- The G-series is named because
German scientists first synthesized them. G series agents are known
as non-persistent, while the V series are persistent. The first
nerve agent synthesised was GA (Tabun) in 1936. GB (Sarin) was
discovered next in 1939, followed by GD (Soman) in 1944 and finally
the more obscure GF (Cyclosarin) in 1949.
- The V-series were developed in
the 1950s. Workers at ICI in the UK were looking for new
organophosphorous pesticides. In 1954, ICI put one of them on the
market under the trade name Amiton. It was subsequently withdrawn,
as it was too toxic for safe use. The toxicity did not go unnoticed
and some of the more toxic materials had in fact been sent to the
Chemical Defence Establishment at Porton Down for evaluation. After
the evaluation was complete, several members of this class of
compounds became a new group of nerve agents, the V agents
(depending on the source, the V stands for Victory, Venomous, or
Viscous). The best known of these is probably VX, with the Russian
V-gas coming a close second (Amiton is largely forgotten as VG).
This class of compounds is also sometimes known as Tammelin's
esters, after Lars-Erik Tammelin of the Swedish Institute of Defense
Research who first synthesised a number of the agents.
- The Novichok (Russian for
"newcomer") agents are a series of organophosphorous compounds that
were developed in the Soviet Union from the mid-1960s to the 1990s.
The goal of this program was to develop and manufacture highly
deadly chemical weapons that were unknown to the West. These new
agents were designed to be undetectable using standard 1970s and 80s
NATO chemical detection equipment; to defeat NATO chemical
protective gear; to be safer to handle; and to circumvent the
Chemical Weapons Convention list of controlled precursors. In
addition to the newly developed "third generation" weapons, binary
versions of several Soviet agents were developed and were also
designated as "Novichok" agents. In the USA binary weapons were also
developed. Binary agents are made up of two parts, individually they
are relatively non-toxic, but when combined following discharge from
a weapon, they form the active agent.
Despite what is frequently stated in
the western press, there is no single substance known as Novichok.
Novichok agents were developed in the 1950s through to the 1990s. They
were designed as part of a Soviet programme codenamed FOLIANT. How many
different agents were developed is unknown, although five are known,
there are about 25 possible variants. The objectives were to produce
agents that would penetrate NATO protective equipment, bypass the
International Chemical Weapons conventions, and be more potent than
previous nerve agents. A number of the Novichok agents were developed to
be binary weapons, that is that two chemicals that were not covered by
the current regulations could be combined at the point of use to produce
the agent itself. There is some confusion, even in the scientific press,
over the naming and chemical structures of various Novichoks. Effects
are similar to other nerve agents.
Psychotomimetic Agents are generally
now not considered to be likely chemical warfare agents. They were
experimented with in the 1950s-70s, but tend to be unstable and are
difficult to deliver in sufficient concentration to be effective, as
well as being very unpredictable in their effects.
As toxins are produced by living
organisms they are chiefly considered on this site on the biological
weapons page. Briefly toxins or biotoxins are substances produced
by one organism that have a toxic action on another organism.
Toxins are extremely poisonous products of the metabolism of living
organisms like bacteria, plants, animals, and fungi. Biotoxins are
biologically active chemical compounds produced by a specific chemical
mechanism in a living organism. Chemically, they are a wide variety of
complex structures including proteins, cyclic peptides, alkaloids, etc.
In some cases after the structure of a toxin is known, they can be
prepared by chemical synthesis. Some toxins can also be prepared by
biotechnological techniques similar to those used in the production of
some drugs. There are several differences between toxins and traditional
chemical warfare agents. When compared, toxins generally have a higher
molecular weight, most of them are odorless and not dermally active, and
most of them produce immune responses in the host. Toxins are easy to
use via the inhalation route in the form of aerosols. Their toxicity
potential is much higher than highly toxic chemical agents like sarin.
As a comparison, the lethal inhalation concentration (LCt50) of a
botulinum toxin aerosol, on average, is 1000 times more toxic than sarin
vapor. Toxins from plants, animals, bacteria, cyanobacteria, algae, and
fungi have potential as CW agents. Some toxins, such as ricin (W),
botulinum toxin (X), or saxitoxin (TZ), have been weaponised. Intensive
military research activity was carried out on some toxins like
palytoxin, batrachotoxin, and tetrodotoxin.
Binary weapons are defined as chemical
warfare agents where the toxic agent is produced during the flight time
of the ammunition (rocket, shell or grenade) on its way to the target.
The first binary agents were researched during WWII, they were a binary
form of Arsine, and the blister agent Methyl
(2-chloroethyl)nitrosocarbamate. The USA developed binary variants of
three nerve agents, sarin (GB-2) soman (GD-2) and VX (VX-2). The Soviets
responded with the development of binary nerve agents under their
FOLIANT programme.
Civil
Defence Corps
The Civil Defence Corps were trained
in protection from chemical agents, and all of its personnel were
specifically trained in the fitting of civilian respirators. The idea
being that in the days leading up to the outbreak of hostilities all of
the Corps would be expected to set up respirator fitting stations and to
fit and supply everyone with a respirator, enough of which had been
stockpiled to supply the whole country. Special respirators were
available for the very young and the infirm, however these were just the
WWII equivalents fitted with new filters. In fact, until about 1960
civilian respirators were all similar to the WWII versions, the
only difference being the type of filter fitted.
The Corps were supplied with the S6 respirator from the mid 1960s, which
had a serious disadvantage, they could not be used with a radio
operator's microphone, or a telephone. Initially personnel requiring
this facility were supplied with a WWII Civilian Duty Respirator with an
updated filter canister.
The respirators shown are, from the left, the civilian duty respirator,
the service respirator, and the S6.
For the detection of chemical agents, three methods were available, the
Paper Detector, of which there were several versions for liquid gas,
detector paint which could be coated onto any suitable surface and the
Kit Vapour Detector. During training we sniffed chemicals which were
meant to smell like some of the chemical agents.
The Civil Defence Corps were also supplied with respirator
decontamination kits and anti-dimming kits. In wartime, personnel who
were required to work outside would be supplied with NBC suits, which
were initially heavy and cumbersome. During NBC training I wore the
earlier lightweight suit for an hour doing moderate physical work
(cable laying), and to be honest it was long enough. Just before the
Corps was disbanded the suit NBC No 1 was issued, it was much improved
being lighter and more flexible. The final item of kit was three rapid
injection (Autoject) pens containing 1mg of atropine sulphate, to be
used in the event of exposure to nerve agents. The instructions for
using these was pretty basic, and amounted to "If you are in any
doubt, then jab." To use this device, one simply removed it from
the packaging, took off the cap, and with a swift movement jabbed it
into the front of the thigh, right through any clothing. The other civil
defence services were also supplied with the same types of equipment.
Chemical Weapons Convention
In 1980 agreement was reached in the
United Nations on the need to remove the threat of chemical warfare. At
that time probably 25 countries had chemical weapons capability. Twelve
years of negotiation lead to the adoption of the Convention
on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use
of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction (CWC). It was opened
for signature in 1993, and came into force in 1997, at which time The
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons was formed with a
duty to implement the convention. To date 192 countries have signed, but
a number of UN member states have not, they are: Egypt, North Korea, and
South Sudan, Israel has signed, but not ratified the convention.